The Making of Regional Cultures

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The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam

One example of the connection between language and region is the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram.
Established in the 9th century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.
It is likely that Malayalam was spoken in this region.
The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.
This marks one of the earliest uses of a regional language in official records in the Indian subcontinent.
The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions.
The temple theatre of Kerala, which emerged during this time, borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.
The first literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the 12th century, were directly indebted to Sanskrit.
A 14th-century text, the Lilatilakam, dealt with grammar and poetics.
The Lilatilakam was composed in Manipravalam – literally meaning “diamonds and corals”, referring to the two languages: Sanskrit and the regional language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

In various regions, regional cultures developed around religious traditions.
The best example is the cult of Jagannatha (meaning "lord of the world", a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.
To this day, local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity.
This suggests that the deity was originally a local god later identified with Vishnu.
In the 12th century, Ganga dynasty ruler Anantavarman decided to build a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
In 1230, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and declared himself the “deputy” of the god.
The temple became an important pilgrimage centre.
Its social and political authority also increased over time.
Those who conquered Orissa – the Mughals, the Marathas, and the English East India Company – tried to control the temple to make their rule acceptable to local people.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

In the 19th century, the British called a region constituting most of present-day Rajasthan as Rajputana.
This name was based on the belief that the area was inhabited only or mainly by Rajputs (which was only partially true).
Several groups across northern and central India identify themselves as Rajputs.
Many people other than Rajputs also live in Rajasthan.
Rajputs have significantly contributed to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan.
These cultural traditions were closely linked with the ideals and aspirations of the rulers.
From the 8th century, most of present-day Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families.
Prithviraj was one such famous Rajput ruler.
They upheld the ideal of the hero who fought bravely and chose death in battle rather than accept defeat.
Stories of Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs.
These stories were recited by specially trained minstrels to preserve heroic memories and inspire others.
Ordinary people were drawn to these tales for their dramatic situations and strong emotions—loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc.
Women often featured as the “cause” of conflicts, with men fighting to either “win” or “protect” them.
Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in life and death.
There are stories about the practice of Sati—the immolation of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

Dance is found in various forms across different regions of India.
One significant example is the history of Kathak, associated with several parts of North India.
The term kathak is derived from katha, a Sanskrit word meaning “story”.
Kathaks were originally a caste of storytellers in North Indian temples, using gestures and songs to enhance their performances.
Kathak evolved into a distinct dance form in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
Legends of Radha and Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, combining folk dance with Kathak-style storytelling gestures.
Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in royal courts.
It acquired new features and developed into a distinctive style of classical dance.
Kathak developed in two main gharanas (traditions): one in Jaipur (Rajasthan) and the other in Lucknow.
Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.
By the third quarter of the 19th century, it was well established in regions like Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
Kathak emphasized intricate footwork, elaborate costumes, and the enactment of stories.
During the British period, Kathak, like many cultural practices, was viewed with disfavour by administrators.
Despite this, it survived through performances by courtesans.
After Independence, Kathak was officially recognised as one of the six “classical” dance forms of India.

Dance is found in various forms across different regions of India.
One significant example is the history of Kathak, associated with several parts of North India.
The term kathak is derived from katha, a Sanskrit word meaning “story”.
Kathaks were originally a caste of storytellers in North Indian temples, using gestures and songs to enhance their performances.
Kathak evolved into a distinct dance form in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
Legends of Radha and Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, combining folk dance with Kathak-style storytelling gestures.
Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in royal courts.
It acquired new features and developed into a distinctive style of classical dance.
Kathak developed in two main gharanas (traditions): one in Jaipur (Rajasthan) and the other in Lucknow.
Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.
By the third quarter of the 19th century, it was well established in regions like Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
Kathak emphasized intricate footwork, elaborate costumes, and the enactment of stories.
During the British period, Kathak, like many cultural practices, was viewed with disfavour by administrators.
Despite this, it survived through performances by courtesans.
After Independence, Kathak was officially recognised as one of the six “classical” dance forms of India.

Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

Another cultural tradition that developed was that of miniature painting.
Miniatures are small-sized paintings made using watercolour on cloth or paper.
The earliest miniatures were created on palm leaves or wood in western India and were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters.
These painters primarily illustrated manuscripts with historical accounts and poetry.
The paintings used brilliant colours and portrayed court scenes, battles, hunting scenes, and social life.
They were often exchanged as gifts and viewed only by an exclusive audience such as the emperor and his close circle.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many artists migrated to regional courts.
Mughal artistic styles influenced Deccan and Rajput courts of Rajasthan while retaining local characteristics.
Portraits of rulers, court scenes, and themes from mythology and poetry became popular.
Important centres of miniature painting included Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota, and Kishangarh.
Another prominent region was the Himalayan foothills, now part of Himachal Pradesh.
By the late 17th century, a bold and intense style called Basohli emerged there.
A popular text for illustration was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
Nadir Shah’s invasion and the 1739 conquest of Delhi led to the migration of Mughal artists to the hills.
These artists found new patrons and helped found the Kangra school of painting.
By the mid-18th century, Kangra artists had developed a new style inspired by Vaishnavite traditions.
This style used soft colours like blues and greens and gave a lyrical treatment to themes.
Ordinary people also created artwork on pots, walls, floors, and cloth.
While most of these folk artworks did not survive, miniatures were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

A Closer Look: Bengal

The Growth of a Regional Language

Regions are often identified by the language spoken by their people.
It is commonly assumed that people in Bengal always spoke Bengali, though this is historically not accurate.
Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit.
Early Sanskrit texts from the mid-first millennium BCE suggest the people of Bengal did not originally speak Sanskritic languages.
From the 4th–3rd centuries BCE, commercial ties between Bengal and Magadha (South Bihar) led to cultural growth.
In the 4th century, Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and settled Brahmanas in the region.
This increased linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley.
In the 7th century, the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observed Sanskrit-related languages in use across Bengal.
From the 8th century, Bengal became a regional power under the Pala dynasty.
Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by Sultans independent of Delhi.
In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal and formed the Bengal suba (province).
Persian became the language of administration, but Bengali developed as a regional language.
By the 15th century, different Bengali dialects were united under a common literary language based on the spoken language of West Bengal.
Bengali evolved through several stages and includes non-Sanskrit words from tribal languages, Persian, and European sources.
Early Bengali literature is divided into two main categories:
- Texts indebted to Sanskrit, including:
  - Translations of Sanskrit epics
  - Mangalakavyas (auspicious poems on local deities)
  - Bhakti literature, such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva
- Texts independent of Sanskrit, including:
  - Nath literature, like songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra
  - Stories of Dharma Thakur worship
  - Fairy tales, folk tales, and ballads
Texts from the first category are easier to date (late 15th to mid-18th century) due to the discovery of manuscripts.
Texts in the second category were transmitted orally, are harder to date, and were especially popular in eastern Bengal, where Brahmanical influence was weaker.

Pirs and Temples

In the 16th century, large-scale migration took place from western Bengal to the forested and marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal.
People moved eastwards, cleared forests, and brought land under rice cultivation.
Local communities such as fisherfolk and shifting cultivators, often tribals, merged with the new peasant communities.
This migration coincided with the establishment of Mughal control over Bengal, with their capital at Dhaka.
Mughal officials and functionaries received land grants and built mosques, which served as centres for religious transformation.
Early settlers, in search of order and assurance in new settlements, found guidance in community leaders.
These leaders acted as teachers and adjudicators and were believed to possess supernatural powers.
They were affectionately and respectfully referred to as pirs.
The term pir included saints, Sufis, religious figures, daring colonisers, deified soldiers, Hindu and Buddhist deities, and even animistic spirits.
The cult of pirs became very popular, and their shrines were found all over Bengal.
From the late 15th century to the 19th century, Bengal experienced a temple-building spree.
Temples and religious structures were built by emerging powerful individuals or groups to show both power and piety.
Many modest brick and terracotta temples were built with the support of “low” social groups like the Kolu (oil pressers) and Kansari (bell metal workers).
The arrival of European trading companies opened new economic opportunities for these groups.
As their social and economic positions improved, they built temples to proclaim their status.
Local deities, once worshipped in thatched village huts, gained recognition from the Brahmanas.
Their images began to be placed in temples.
Temples started copying the dochala (double-roofed) and chauchala (four-roofed) thatched hut styles.
This led to the evolution of the Bengali style of temple architecture.
Architectural style: four triangular roofs placed on four walls converging on a curved line or point.
Temples were built on a square platform, with a relatively plain interior.
The outer walls were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles, or terracotta tablets.
In Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal, these decorations reached high excellence.

Fish As Food

Traditional food habits are generally based on locally available food items.
Bengal, being a riverine plain, produces plenty of rice and fish.
Rice and fish are staples and feature prominently even in the diets of poor Bengalis.
Fishing has always been an important occupation in Bengal.
Bengali literature contains many references to the importance of fish.
Terracotta plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) show scenes of fish being dressed and sold in baskets.
Brahmanas were traditionally not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food.
Due to the popularity of fish in the local diet, Brahmanical authorities relaxed the rules for Bengal Brahmanas.
The Brihaddharma Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

MCQs

1. The temple theatre of Kerala built by Chera borrowed stories from the

(a) Roman Epics

(b) Hindi Epics

(d) Sanskrit epics

► (d) Sanskrit epics

2. Attribution of living soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena

(a) Animism

(b) Anemesm

(d) Amimesim

► (a) Animism

3. ______ is a popular regional deity, often worshipped in the form of a stone or a piece of wood

(a) Chaitanyadeva

(b) Gopichandra

(d) Maynamati

► (c) Dharma Thakur

4. By the early nineteenth century, in Rumania school textbooks began to be written in _____ rather than in ____

(a) Latin, Rumanian

(b) Rumanian, Latin

(d) Greek, Rumanian

► (c) Rumanian, Greek

5. Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late ____ century, which culminated in the _____ century

(a) 15th, 19th

(b) 14th, 17th

(d) 16th, 19th

► (a) 15th, 19th

6. Jagannatha temple is in

(a) Kerala

(b) Maharashtra

(d) Karnataka

► (c) Odisha

7. Kathak, now associated with several parts of

(a) North India

(b) West India

(d) South India

► (a) North India

8. Which state was called Rajputana by the British

(a) Madhya Pradesh

(b) Rajasthan

(d) Gujarat

► (b) Rajasthan

9. In 1230, Who dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the “deputy” of the god

(a) king Anangabhima IV

(b) king Anangabhima III

(d) king Anangabhima I

► (b) king Anangabhima III

10. Xuan Zang was a

(a) Chinese travellers

(b) English travellers

(d) Japanese travellers

► (a) Chinese travellers

11. Miniatures are

(a) Large-sized paintings

(b) Small-sized paintings

(d) Horizontal paintings

► (b) Small-sized paintings

12. The Mughal emperors ________ patronised highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry

(a) Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan

(b) Akbar, Jahangir and Aurangzeb

(d) Babar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan

► (a) Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan

13. Lilatilakam deals with

(a) Drama and poetics

(b) Drama only

(d) Grammar and poetics

► (d) Grammar and poetics

14. Bengali is derived from

(a) English

(b) Awadhi

(d) Sanskrit

► (d) Sanskrit

15. Lilatilakam, was composed in

(a) Mannnipravalam

(b) Manipravalam

(d) Manipravolam

► (b) Manipravalam

16. In Bengal Officials and functionaries received land and often set up ___ that served as centres for religious transformation in these areas.

(a) Buildings

(b) Fort

(d) Mosques

► (d) Mosques

17. Kathak was developed in two traditions or gharanas:

(a) In the courts of Rajasthan and the other in Lucknow

(b) In the courts of Rajasthan and the other in Kerala

(d) In the courts of Gujarat and the other in Orissa

► (a) In the courts of Rajasthan and the other in Lucknow

18. The earliest miniatures were on

(a) Palm leaves or wood

(b) Glass

(d) Paper

► (a) Palm leaves or wood