Eighteenth-Century Political Formation

The Idea of a Supreme God

• Before large kingdoms, people worshipped local gods and goddesses.
• Belief in privileges by birth was debated in learned texts.
• Many followed Buddha and Jain teachings; others turned to bhakti.
• Local deities were associated with Shiva, Vishnu, or Durga.
• Bhakti was adopted even by Buddhists and Jainas.

Bhakti Movements in South India

Nayanars and Alvars

• 7th–9th centuries: Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) emerged.
• They composed poems in praise of deities and travelled widely.
• 10th–12th centuries: Chola and Pandya kings supported temple building and bhakti worship.

Philosophy and Bhakti

• Shankara (Kerala) promoted Advaita – soul and Supreme God are one.
• Ramanuja (Tamil Nadu) believed in devotion to Vishnu for salvation.

Religious Movements and Social Equality

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

• 12th century: Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akkamahadevi led the Virashaiva movement in Karnataka.
• They promoted equality and opposed caste and mistreatment of women.

The Saints of Maharashtra

• 13th–17th centuries: Saint-poets like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakhubai, Chokhamela.
• They rejected rituals and emphasized devotion.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• Criticised rituals and social order.
• Salvation through meditation and oneness with Ultimate Reality.

Islamic Influence and Sufism

Islam and Sufism

• Sufis were Muslim mystics who valued love, devotion and compassion.
• Shariat and Islamic theology developed in 8th–9th centuries.
• Sufis rejected rituals and lived in khanqahs (hospices).

Bhakti and Religious Developments in North India

• 13th century onward: new bhakti wave emerged.
• Craftspersons, peasants, traders followed saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Surdas, Dadu Dayal, Ravidas, Mirabai.
• They wrote in regional languages and composed devotional songs.

A Closer Look: Kabir

• Lived in 15th–16th centuries, composed sakhis and pads.
• Criticised external worship and rituals.

A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

• 1469–1539: Born in Talwandi, established centre at Kartarpur.
• Guru Angad succeeded him and introduced Gurmukhi script.
• Ramdaspur (Amritsar) developed with Harmandar Sahib at centre.
• Emphasized one God and equality beyond caste, creed, or gender.